THE SEMINOLE WARS

Submitted by: George M. Cole and John E. Ladson III
Aucilla Research Institute

While the Seminole people are primarily identified with the State of Florida, they were part of the Creek Confederacy in Alabama and Georgia long before they migrated South to fill the vacuum left by Florida’s decimated original tribes, including the Appalachees, Timucuans and Calusas. This migration took place in three phases between 1702 and 1740, then 1740 to 1812 and finally 1812 to 1820. It was driven by various forces such as the expansion of trade, the need for more productive agricultural lands, encroaching white settlements, the Creek War of 1813 to 1814 resulting in the defeat of the “Red Sticks” and international rivalries. In addition, as the Creek presence expanded into the peninsula, their ranks grew to encompass numerous escaped slaves.

During the first half of the 19th century, there were three wars between the United States and the Seminole Native Americans. These wars had a major impact on life of the new settlers in the Aucilla River area. The conflicts were the result of rivalry for the land since the Seminoles had adapted a lifestyle somewhat similar to that of the settlers in the frontier. They had large herds of cattle, practiced crop rotation, lived in cabins, had metal pots and pans, used firearms for hunting game and traded with the English, Spanish and the United States.

The First Seminole War
The First Seminole War was during the 1816 to 1818 period. That war consisted primarily of a brief raid on Spanish-held Florida by General Andrew Jackson. The United States had become increasingly concerned with the threat to slave-holding interests by the Seminole and Miccosukee villages in Florida. Those villages provided a sanctuary for escaped slaves. As a result, The United States established a fort at the intersection of the Flint and Choctawhatchee Rivers, just north of the Florida line. To provision that fort, the United States sent vessels up the Apalachicola River. A Spanish fort had been constructed on a bluff on the eastern bank of the river, about 15 miles north of Apalachicola. When the U.S. boats attempted to pass the Spanish fort, the Spanish troops opened fire on them. The boats returned fire, hitting the powder magazine and blowing up the fort and most of the inhabitants.

That incident was followed by the firing upon U.S. troops at the new U.S. fort on the Flint River by residents of a Miccosukee village that existed across the River. The Miccosukee felt the U.S. presence to be an invasion of their space. In return, the U.S. troops destroyed the village.
Following those events, U.S. General Andrew Jackson requested and received orders that allowed him to pursue Native Americans into Florida. Therefore, on March 11, 1818, he led troops south along the east bank of the Apalachicola River and then easterly towards Tallahassee. Arriving in Tallahassee, he found the region had been deserted as he approached. Therefore, he headed on towards Lake Miccosukee where he encountered Native Americans herding cattle on the shore of the lake. In the ensuing attack on the village, many scalps hanging on poles were found as well as remnants of British military uniforms. This enraged Jackson since it confirmed his suspicions of British support for the Spanish. During the battle, 14 Native American men were killed and three women captured, 300 houses destroyed and over 1000 cattle taken.

Subsequent to the attack on the village at Lake Miccosukee, Jackson headed toward the port of St. Marks where he captured the Spanish fort there on April 6, 1818. A U.S. ship met him at the port with supplies and ammunition. Then, Jackson headed toward the reported headquarters of Seminole Chief Bowleck (Bow Legs) along the Suwannee River. Enroute, there were at least two skirmishes near the Aucilla River. The first encounter occurred on April 12, 1818, after Jackson’s sentinels heard dogs barking and cattle lowing. After investigating, a settlement with many houses was found near the river. During the ensuing battle, 37 Native Americans were killed, six men and 98 women taken as prisoners and over 600 cattle, a number of hogs, horses and a large amount of corn taken. Among the captives was a young boy who was later released. He would come to be known as Osceola, perhaps the most famous of the Seminole Warriors. Two days later, a smaller encampment was found which resulted in the capture of another man and two children as well as the death of a man and woman mistaken for warriors. Jackson then proceeded to the Suwannee River where he destroyed Native American villages in that area.

As might be expected with the passage of a large body of troops, Jackson’s march through the Aucilla River area left a significant impression. As evidence of this, the U.S. Public Land Survey of the area, a decade later, located and depicted Jackson’s route across the Aucilla River area on the resulting maps.

In the course of Jackson’s campaign, he captured Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert Ambrister, both British subjects with business and territorial ambitions rooted in Florida and relations with the Seminoles. Convinced that they were guilty of spying and inciting the Indians to war, Jackson quickly convened a military court at St. Marks, convicted and executed them. Another motive in this highly questionable affair may have been to add international meddling as a provocation to justify Jackson’s invasion as opposed to its true purpose. Whatever the motive, this affair haunted Jackson for the remainder of his political career.

As a follow up to the invasion, there were international and national complaints. Jackson was accused of making a major foreign policy decision without approval of the government. The Secretary of Defense denied that he had given authorization for the mission, and Jackson was more or less abandoned by the Monroe administration. Only Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended Jackson. Despite the criticism, the invasion instigated negotiations with Spain that ultimately led to the Adams-Onis Treaty which resulted in the transfer of Florida to the United States.

Interim Period
After the acquisition of the Florida Territory by the United States, the Territorial Government faced the problem of how to deal with the Native American population. The national policy at that time was to relocate Native Americans to lands west of the Mississippi River. Nevertheless, the lack of knowledge of the Florida Territory, led to a decision for a short-term restriction of the natives to a reservation within the territory. The Seminoles living in areas along the Apalachicola approached Territorial Governor Duval with a proposal that they be allowed to remain in their present location. This proposal was met with approval. But due to the distances from that site to other Native American settlements, it was decided to assign two areas as reservations – the area along the Apalachicola and a primary area in the southern part of the State. A plan was developed to relocate all Native Americans in the State to those two areas with provisions for reimbursement for any improvements at their present location as well as stipends of meat, corn and salt and a small annual annuity.

As might be expected, the Seminoles, especially those in North Florida areas such as along the Aucilla River, objected to being forced to relocate to regions with less desirable land for their crops. As a result, there was resentment and resistance. Nevertheless, a treaty allowing them to stay in the Territory for a minimum period of 20 years and restricting them to the reservations was executed in 1823. This resulted in a turbulent period with frequent raids, mostly from remnants of the tribe hiding in the northern territory.

Attacks along the Aucilla River in December 1826, along with allegations of the Seminoles harboring runaway slaves and theft of crops and livestock, aroused great concern among the settlers in that area. As a result, after honoring only 13 years of the 20-year agreement, the U.S. began a program to relocate the Native Americans to the West. As a result, in 1834, the tribe was commanded to sell their livestock and move to the point of embarkation.

The Second Seminole War
The announcement of the forced expulsion of the Seminoles resulted in the beginning of the 2nd Seminole War. In 1835 after a number of skirmishes, acting Territorial Governor George Walker ordered out the militia. What followed were numerous armed engagements along the St Johns River, the east coast and in Central Florida. The poorly organized and inexperienced militia troops were no match for the Seminole warriors. A number of communities and plantations were burned to the ground. In addition, slaves from Florida plantations began joining the Seminoles. The plantation economy of East Florida was completely destroyed.

Following these events, two important U.S. Army generals, Edmund Gaines and Winfield Scott were assigned to direct the war. The generals were not the best choices for an assignment in the undeveloped Florida territory. Reportedly, General Scott came to Florida with a large collection of office furniture for his headquarters along with a military band. Also, there was an intense rivalry between the generals regarding command, and neither general had respect for the local militia. As a result, between that rivalry, the sub-tropical environment with its intense heat, mosquitoes, dengue, malaria and yellow fever – as well the lack of maps which could guide officers unfamiliar with the Florida territory, very little progress was made in ending the war.

Although directed by U.S. Army officers, the various Florida militia groups continued to serve as the fighting force. While the war raged on, this generated some resentment in the Aucilla River area since it was left undefended with their militia elsewhere in the war. Finally, in 1841, regular U.S. Army troops were deployed.
During the course of the next decade, various U.S. commanders were assigned to Florida, nearly all with limited success. Assignment to Florida became known as the graveyard of military reputations for U.S. Army officers. Further, Congress became restless regarding the over twenty million dollars that had been spent on the war.

The long-extended conflict had significant impact on the settlers along the Aucilla. Fortunately, a number of small military posts were established along the River and its tributaries and in other nearby areas. Nevertheless, due to the numerous swamps and the widely spaced settlements, small bands of Native Americans were able to move about with impunity. The various military posts or forts were scattered all across Taylor and Jefferson Counties and were frequently located near major roadways, large plantations, river landings and seaports. Those in the Aucilla area included Forts Roger Jones, Ocilla, Clarke, Econfinee, Wacissa, Gamble and others. Most were small installations which served as base camps and supply depots. Constructed in a rudimentary fashion they were typically eighty feet square utilizing eighteen-foot pine logs sharpened at the top with a storehouse in the center and a three-foot wide platform running along the base of the interior walls to accommodate musket fire through portals. At the diagonal corners were two story blockhouses. Given their construction, largely of wood and earth, few traces of them remain today.

Despite the presence of the forts, the undeveloped swamps along the Aucilla provided a refuge for war parties, resulting in numerous attacks in the Aucilla River area. In his History of Jefferson County, historian Jerrell Shofner details numerous such attacks along the river and on nearby plantations. These included the massacre of a family lying just west of the river, killing of the family of the ferry operator at the crossing of the federal highway on the river and burning of scores of nearby plantations with resulting casualties.
Nevertheless, from pure attrition, the capability of the Seminoles gradually began to wane. By mid-1842, their warriors had reportedly been reduced to about 300 souls, wandering around trying to avoid death or capture, and by August of 1843, the war was essentially over.

The Third Seminole War
At the end of the Second Seminole War, the U.S. agreed to allow a reasonable time for the Native Americans to get ready for emigration and designated an area of South Florida for them to occupy during the interim period. They were not allowed to approach within twenty miles of the boundary of that area nor to get near the coastline to prevent them from continuing their long-established trade with Cuba and the Bahamas. The U.S. Army assumed the responsibility for enforcing the boundary and the restrictions.

Despite such precautions, friction between the Native Americans and the surrounding settlers continued over time. That friction was worsened by settlers who began pushing into the Native American zone as well as incidents of cattle theft. Then, in 1854, the General Land office began extending the cadastral survey of the territory into the reserved land. The Native Americans realized that subdivision of the land meant that settlers were not far behind. As a result, full blown warfare broke out once more in 1856. This third war did not have the large battles of previous wars. Rather, due to the fairly small number of warriors remaining, it was more a series of skirmishes and attrition. Finally, in 1858, the primary chief of the Seminoles, Chief Billy Bowlegs, agreed to emigrate. Along with a number of his troops, he was loaded aboard a ship and transported to Arkansas. Ironically, he joined the Union army during the Civil War and served as a captain, dying from smallpox while on duty.

The Seminole Wars were over. Nevertheless, even though their primary leader, Billy Bowlegs, agreed to emigrate out of the State, no treaty was ever signed. The United States could not force a surrender from the Seminoles. The descendants of those who participated in the wars still live in Florida today, many of them on formal reservations established well after the wars.